Shifting commute travel from peak period automobile trips to alternative times and modes can provide a variety of benefits.

Employee Benefits

CTR programs can benefit employees by increasing their travel options, reducing travel stress and by providing financial savings.  Some studies show that many workers place a high value on having commute alternatives.[22]  Even people who generally enjoy driving do not necessarily want to drive to work every day.  At the margin (i.e., relative to current levels of vehicle travel), many consumers would probably prefer to drive somewhat less, provided that they had good mobility alternatives with adequate comfort, convenience and prestige.

Employer Benefits[23]

CTR programs can benefit employers by reducing their parking costs or freeing up parking for customers.  Programs that improve travel choices or provide financial benefits tend to improve employee morale and recruitment, and reduce employee turnover.  For example, employee turnover at the Calvert Group (an investment firm) declined from 25% to 12% after a comprehensive package of commute benefits were introduced, and other surveys find that telecommuting reduces employee turnover by 16%.[24]

Community Benefits

CTR is particularly effective at reducing traffic congestion since commute trips are the largest share of peak-period travel.  It can reduce road, on-street parking and traffic service costs.  Along with reducing GHG emissions, it can also help reduce pollution and crash risk, and increase demand for alternative modes, providing economies of scale.  By reducing road and parking facility requirements, it supports more efficient land use, compact development and more pedestrian-oriented streetscapes.

CTR costs

Costs include program administration expenses and any additional employee time requirements.[25]  Administrative costs typically average $1-8 per employee per month to cover program planning, marketing, management and evaluation activities.[26] A survey by Pollution Probe found that the American employers with successful CTR programs spend an average of $156 annually per employer, with the majority spending $33 to $89.[27]  However, there are also savings and benefits to businesses that may offset much of these costs.[28]

Some costs and benefits are economic transfers, in which costs to one group are offset by benefits to another.  For example, charging motorists directly for using parking facilities increases costs to automobile commuters but provides additional revenue to businesses.[29]  Financial incentives for commuters that choose alternative forms of transportation represent an economic transfer from employers to employees, and often substitute for other employee benefits such as free parking.[30] 

 

Commute Trip Reductions

CASE STUDY:  Trip Reduction Ordinances[31]

Some jurisdictions have ordinances that require or encourage commute trip reduction programs.  Below are some examples.  Washington State’s Commute Trip Reduction Law (CTR)[32] is designed to reduce traffic congestion, pollution and fuel consumption.  Employers in major urban areas with more than 100 employees at a worksite are required to develop CTR programs that encourage employees who drive alone to work to consider using an alternative commute mode such as buses, vanpools, carpools, biking, walking, telecommuting and flexible work schedules.[33]   Maricopa County, AZ [34] requires major worksites with 50 or more employees to implement trip reduction programs.[35]   Cambridge, MA[36] has an ordinance requiring businesses to implement TDM at new developments.[37]   South Notomas, CA[38] allows developers to use TDM programs, such as participation in a TMA, to help gain municipal acceptance of new developments.[39] Bay Area, CA[40] requires all public and private employers with 100 or more employees at a work site to establish employee trip reduction targets for various locations and years, and identify various strategies to help achieve these targets.[41] Pima County, AZ under the PIMA Association of Governments,[42] established Travel Reduction Ordinances (TRO) to improve air quality and reduce traffic congestion by increasing alternate mode usage and reducing overall motor vehicle travel for commute trips.[43]

 

 

Implement Parking Management Programs [44]

Managing the type and number of parking lots can reduce pavement space and vehicle use in a city.  A variety of techniques allow cities to incorporate GHG reduction into parking management systems.  For example, implementing storm water management fees based on the amount of pavement on a lot, and per-space parking levies, act as incentives to property owners to reduce parking supply and implement transportation management programs. Strategic parking management programs can also maximize parking space, and encourage alternative transport that reduce the number of parking spaces needed in a community.  The next table summarizes these parking management strategies, and indicates the potential reduction in parking supply that they can typically provide.

 

Management Strategy	Description
Strategies That Result In More Efficient Use of Parking Facilities
Shared Parking	Parking spaces are shared by more than one user allowing facilities to be used more efficiently.
Regulate Parking Facility Use	More convenient and visible parking spaces are managed and regulated to give priority to higher-value trips, increase efficiency and user convenience.
More Accurate and Flexible Standards	Reduce or adjust standards to more accurately reflect demand at a particular location, taking into account geographic, demographic and economic factors.
Parking Maximums	Establish maximum in addition or instead of minimum parking standards to avoid excessive parking supply.
Remote Parking	Encouraging longer-term parkers to use off-site or fringe parking facilities, so more convenient spaces are available for priority users.
Improving User Information and Marketing	Provide convenient and accurate information on parking availability and price, using maps, signs, brochures and electronic communication.
Smart Growth and Location Efficient Development	Encourage more clustered, mixed, multi-modal, infill development, which allows more shared parking and use of alternative modes.
Improved Walkability	Improve pedestrian conditions to allow parkers to conveniently access more parking facilities, increasing the functional supply in an area.
Transportation Management Associations	Transportation Management Associations are private, non-profit, member-controlled organizations that can provide a variety of services that encourage more efficient use of transport and parking resources in an area.
Increase Capacity of Existing Parking Facilities	More parking spaces can sometimes be provided by using currently wasted space, sizing spaces for smaller vehicles and motorcycles, and using car stackers.
Strategies That Reduce Parking Demand
Transportation Demand Management Programs	Various strategies and programs can encourage more efficient travel patterns, which reduces automobile trips and parking demand.
Parking Pricing	Charge motorists directly for using parking facilities, and set fees to encourage efficient use of parking facilities.
Improve Parking Pricing Methods	Use of more convenient and effective parking pricing techniques to make parking pricing more acceptable and cost effective.
Commuter Financial Incentives	Parking cash out and transit benefits give commuters a financial incentives to shift modes and reduce parking demand.
Unbundle Parking	Rent or sell parking spaces separately from building space, so occupants pay for just the number of parking spaces that they use.
Tax Parking Facilities	Impose special taxes on parking facilities and commercial parking transactions.
Improve Enforcement and Control	Enforcement should be consistent, fair and friendly. Parking passes should have clear limitations regarding where, when and by whom they may be used, and these limitations should be enforced.
Bicycle Facilities	Supply bicycle parking, storage and changing facilities instead of some automobile parking spaces.

Strategies that Reduce Negative Impacts
Develop Overflow Parking Plans	Encourage use of remote parking facilities and promote use of alternative modes during peak periods, such as busy shopping times and major events.
Address Spillover Problems	Address spillover parking problems directly with management, pricing and enforcement strategies.
Parking Facility Design and Management	Improved parking facility design to address safety, storm-water management, user comfort, security and aesthetic objectives.

Table:  Typical Parking Management Strategies

The table below indicates the typical reductions in parking  requirements provided by various parking management strategies, and indicates those that also tend to reduce vehicle traffic.

 

Strategy	Parking Requirement Reductions			Reduce Vehicle Traffic
	Low	Medium	High
Shared Parking	10%	20%	30%
Parking Regulations	10%	20%	30%
More Accurate Standards	10%	20%	30%
Parking Maximums	10%	20%	30%
Remote Parking	10%	20%	30%
Smart Growth	10%	20%	30%	X
Walking and Cycling Improvements	5%	10%	15%	X
Increase Capacity of Existing Facilities	5%	10%	15%
Mobility Management	10%	20%	30%	X
Parking Pricing	10%	20%	30%	X
Improve Pricing Methods	NA	NA	NA	X
Financial Incentives	10%	20%	30%	X
Unbundle Parking	10%	20%	30%	X
Parking Tax Reform	5%	10%	15%	X
Bicycle Facilities	5%	10%	15%	X
Improve User Information	5%	10%	15%	X
Improve Enforcement and Control	NA	NA	NA
Transportation Management Associations	NA	NA	NA	X
Overflow Parking Plans	NA	NA	NA
Address Spillover Problems	NA	NA	NA
Parking Facility Design	NA	NA	NA

 

Table:  Typical Reductions in Parking Requirements and Vehicle Traffic

This indicates the typical reductions in parking requirements relative to conventional practices, and whether a parking management strategy tends to reduce vehicle traffic, thereby providing additional benefits.  NA indicates strategies that do not directly affect parking requirements.

 

How to Implement

Parking management is usually implemented by local governments or individual businesses in response to specific parking and traffic problems.  Some parking management programs are coordinated by regional governments.  Concerns over an immediate parking problem can instigate development of a comprehensive parking planning process.  Transportation engineers and planners, either within public agencies or hired as consultants, are usually responsible for performing parking studies, evaluating parking solutions and developing parking management plans.  It is important, though, that parking management be included in a climate protection program, and not left to the traditional planners.

Below is the typical five-step process for developing a contingency-based[45] parking management plan:

1. Define general problems to be addressed (climate protection, parking congestion, traffic congestion, excessive parking facility costs, poor pedestrian environments, etc.) and the geographic areas to be considered.

2. Perform the following studies:

• A parking supply inventory (how many spaces exist of each type of parking: public and private, on- and off-street, short- and long-term, free and paid, etc.) for each geographic area.

• A parking utilization study (what portion of each type of parking is used at various time, particularly peak-periods) for each geographic area.

• Projections of how parking supply and demand are likely to change in the future, taking into account expected changes in land use, population, commercial activity, travel patterns, etc.

• Use this information to identify when and where parking supply is or will be inadequate or excessive.

3. Work with stakeholders to evaluate the effectiveness, benefits, costs, equity impacts, feasibility and barriers of each potential solution. Use this information to prioritize these options.

4. Develop an integrated parking plan that identifies changes in policies and practices, tasks, responsibilities, budgets, schedules, etc.

5. Identify potential solutions.[46]

 

Parking Management Benefits

Efficiency and Savings

A comprehensive parking management program that includes several strategies (shared parking,[47] more accurate parking requirements, pricing, cash out,[48] etc.) can often reduce parking requirements by 30-50% compared with generous minimum parking requirements, unpriced parking, and each space assigned to an individual motorist.  With appropriate parking management motorists still have adequate parking, although they may need to walk somewhat farther, and pay directly rather than indirectly for parking.

The magnitude of savings that result from parking management depends on specific conditions, including the cost per parking space and how much parking can be reduced.

 

Parking Management Programs

CASE STUDY:  Chattanooga, TN

To encourage downtown development the Chattanooga Area Regional Transit Authority developed peripheral parking garages with free shuttle service. [49]  By constructing parking facilities at either end of the business district, the system intercepts commuters and visitors before they drive into the city center, reducing traffic problems.  The garages’ parking revenues finance the free shuttle buses.  They depart from each garage every five minutes all day, every day, and pass within walking distance of most downtown destinations.  The electric-powered shuttles transport approximately one million riders each year, making shuttle-served property attractive to businesses.  Since 1992, when the shuttle service began, over $400 million has been invested in the downtown, including a major freshwater aquarium, over 100 retail shops and 60 restaurants. CONTACT City of Chattanooga Public Works Department Traffic Engineering (423) 757-5005

 

 

Better Coverage of Public Transportation[50]

Making public transportation more accessible is an important step for increased public transit usage.  This can be done through information programs, business subsidies for employee use of mass transit; higher urban parking fees to encourage public transit; safer transit stations and stops and convenient fare structures and payment systems.

Transit encouragement programs are usually implemented by transit agencies, often with support from other government agencies and businesses.  It is usually best to begin with a survey of potential users to determine what improvements and marketing strategies could increase ridership, before developing a transit plan.  For example, one transportation user survey[51] from the greater Vancouver, Canada area found that discretionary transit riders (those that have the option of traveling by automobile):

• Believe that mass transit travel can be less stressful than driving a car

• Believe that mass transit travel is more convenient than driving for some trips

• Believe that mass transit travel saves wear-and-tear on their car

• Want transit service within convenient walking distance of their homes and destinations

• Want clean transit vehicles and safe waiting areas

• Want reliable, on-time service with good connections

• Want fast, direct service

Stanley and Hyman (2005) identify a number of factors and strategies that tend to increase transit ridership in an area, including improved service, reduced fares, marketing, and more integrated planning and partnerships with other organizations.[52] 

A study[53] comparing various European regions and cities identified the following transport policies that tend to increase public transit ridership:

• Availability of adequate capital funding for public transport

• Relatively low public transport fares

• Integration of public transport services (timed connections, new journey opportunities etc)

• Restraint of parking and reallocation of road space to more sustainable modes

• Integration of regional, multimodal ticketing systems

• Long-term planning and implementation of these policies.  To be effective, these polices must be in place for a long time (a decade or more), which implies consistent political consensus on their efficacy

• Adequate regulation of bus transit systems; the most successful systems are run on a franchised (quality contract-type) basis

Strategies include:

• Fare reductions

• New fare options, particularly discounted tickets and passes

• Free transit areas

• More convenient routing (e.g., eliminating the need for transfers)

• Regularized schedules (such as having a bus every hour and half-hour)

• Special route to serve particular travel requirements, such as access to employment centers

Government agencies (such as the Federal Transit Administration) and professional organizations (such as the American Transit Association) provide resources for Transit Encouragement program planning.  These include:

• Survey potential users and evaluate travel trends to determine what improvements and marketing strategies are likely to increase ridership.

• Consider using innovative marketing techniques, price discounts and new fare collection methods (such as “smart cards”) to attract new riders.

• Identify and respond to the various market segments that they can serve, including Basic Mobility for people who are transportation disadvantaged, and fast, convenient travel for urban commuters.

 

 

Public Transportation

CASE STUDY:  Boulder, CO

Starting in 1989, the city of Boulder, Colorado began implementing a demonstration transit service using a fleet of small, colorfully designed buses to provide high frequency, inexpensive and direct service within the city.  And thus, the first Community Transit Network bus, the HOP, was born.  Today, there are six bus routes in the Community Transit Network—HOP, SKIP, JUMP, BOUND, DASH and STAMPEDE.  All have a unique identity and amenities shaped with community input and direction.  In 1990, Transit ridership was about 5,000 riders daily for all local and regional routes in and out of Boulder.  In 2002, ridership was at a daily average of about 26,000, a 500% increase.  The city of Boulder partnered with the city of Longmont and Boulder County to add another high-frequency bus route called the BOLT on a local highway in 2004. [54]  Benefits beyond GHG emission reductions of the Community Transit Network: Provides a convenient transit alternative to the single occupancy vehicle. Uses neighborhood-scaled vehicles to fit the context of Boulder. Strengthens the local economy by providing easy access around Boulder and to and from surrounding communities. Provides wheelchair accessible transportation. Reduces air pollution by using clean-burning fuels. Alleviates traffic congestion. Minimizes the need for roadway expansion and provides reliable, high frequency service. Operates clean, comfortable, human-scaled vehicles, with special amenities such as music. Promotes a positive transit image with attractive vehicles and on-going marketing support. Accepts Eco Passes (transit passes for students and residents of certain neighborhoods). Includes bike racks, holding two bikes at one time, that allow for integration of travel. In November 2000, residents of the Forest Glen neighborhood in the city of Boulder voted to form a General Improvement District (GID) to provide Eco Pass transit passes for all neighborhood residents including home owners and renters.  These passes are paid for by residents in the Forest Glen as part of their annual property tax.  The pass allows unlimited riding on all RTD buses, Light Rail service to Denver International Airport, downtown Denver and Eldora Mountain Resort. CONTACT City of Boulder Transportation Advisory Board (303) 441-3266 [email protected]

 

Car Sharing Programs and Installation of Park and Ride Facilities[55]

Rideshare

Rideshare programs typically provide carpool matching, vanpool sponsorship, marketing programs, and incentives to reduce driving.  Rideshare incentives may include giving High Occupant Vehicles (HOV) priority[56] (e.g., HOV highway lanes), preferential parking spaces, and awards.  Some employers offer commuter financial incentives[57] such as a cash payment to employees who carpool, or a voucher that covers vanpool fees, provided as an alternative to a free parking space.  Because they have significant economies of scale (the more people who register, the more effective they are at successfully matching riders), it is helpful if one well-publicized ride-matching program serves an entire geographic region.

Rideshare programs that include incentives such as HOV priority often reduce commute trips by 10-30%[58].  If implemented without such incentives travel impacts are usually smaller.  Evans and Pratt (2005) describe several worksites where 5-20% of employees commute by vanpool.  The most effective programs tend to have paid parking, subsidies for alternative modes and other incentives to encourage reduced automobile commuting.

Ridesharing can reduce peak-period vehicle trips and increase commuter’s travel choices.  It reduces congestion, road and parking facility costs, crash risk and pollution emissions.  Ridesharing tends to have the lowest cost per passenger-mile of any motorized mode of transportation, since it makes use of a vehicle seat that would otherwise be empty.  Ridesharing provides consumer financial savings (as estimated in the table below), and time savings if there are HOV priority facilities.  Crash risk declines due to fewer vehicles on the road.[59]  Rideshare programs improve transportation options and are particularly helpful to commuters who cannot drive or lack a reliable automobile.[60]

Organizations such as the Association for Commuter Transportation and Commuter Connections can provide advice and resources for developing an effective ridesharing program.  A study in the Seattle area identified several ways of improving and increasing vanpooling.[61]

 

Ride share best practices:

• Should be implemented as part of a comprehensive TDM Program.

• Should include ridematching services, HOV priority, and other trip reduction strategies.

• Ridematching services should cover a large geographic area (such as an entire region) in order to create the largest possible pool of users.

• Transportation agencies, businesses and employees should all be involved in planning Rideshare Programs

• Provide incentives to attract and retain rideshare users, such as mileage-points and vehicle insurance discounts.

 

Round Trip Miles	Drive Alone	3-Rider Car Pool	10-Rider Van Pool
30	$193	$64	$31
40	$257	$86	$37
50	$321	$107	$43
60	$386	$129	$50
70	$450	$150	$56
80	$514	$171	$63

Table:  Estimated Monthly Commuting Costs

Park and Ride

Park & Ride[64] facilities are usually implemented by regional transportation or transit agencies.  In some cases, existing, underutilized parking (such as a mall parking lot) is designated for Park & Ride use.  Patrols and lighting are sometimes provided to address security concerns that users may have about leaving their vehicles.

Benefits and Costs

By encouraging shifts to transit and ridesharing, Park & Ride facilities reduce urban highway traffic congestion and worksite parking demand.  These benefits can be significant since Park & Ride tends to be most effective where traffic congestion and parking problems are worst.  However, automobile Park & Ride only provides modest reductions in local road traffic, pollution, energy use and consumer costs, since a local automobile trip is still made.  Bicycle Park & Ride can provide greater economic and environmental benefits.  Shopping centers adjacent to Park & Ride facilities tend to benefit from additional shopping by the commuters who park there.[65]

Costs are primarily associated with facility construction and operation.  Construction costs typically average several thousand dollars per space, which is usually lower than the costs of providing parking at city centers due to lower land values.

Best Practices for Park & Ride facilities:

• Facilities should be developed as part of an overall transit and rideshare improvement program.

• Facilities should be located within view of businesses or homes, for the sake of security.

• Facilities should include bike storage lockers, or other secure bike storage if demand exists.

• Facilities should have adequate lighting, landscaping and other amenities (bus shelters, garbage cans, etc.).

• It is usually best to have several smaller Park & Ride facilities in different locations, rather than one large one.

Location Efficient Mortgages[67]

Location efficient mortgages give borrowers lower rates if they live near to public transit.  The rationale is that the lower costs will make the borrower better able to meet mortgage payments, thus reducing risk.  Location Efficient Mortgages (LEMs) are implemented by residential mortgage lenders, often with the support and encouragement of government agencies such as Fannie Mae and the Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation.  Lenders use a model to determine which locations have lower transportation costs, and therefore can qualify for higher mortgage payments.  The following factors can be considered in such developments:

• Proximity to high quality transit (such as a rail transit station, or a bus line with frequent service)

• Walking and cycling conditions

• Number of public services within convenient walking distance (schools, shops, parks, medical services, pharmacy, etc.)

• Carshare services within convenient walking distance

• Options for residents who do not own an automobile to not pay for parking

Location efficient developments are designed and located to improve overall accessibility and affordability of residential and commercial real estate.  They are often implemented as part of “Smart Growth”[68] and “New Urbanist”[69] planning.[70]  The following criteria can be used to evaluate whether a development qualifies for a location efficient mortgage:

• Is it located in an urban area within a half-mile of quality public transit?

• Does it include, or is it located near, commonly-used public services such as grocery stores, video stores and public schools?

• Will it reduce dependency on automobiles?

• Does it have a minimum density of 20 units per acre?

• Does it have at least 20 units?

• Is it reflective of good design features?

• Is it being developed with substantial community input?

• Does it include a significant portion of affordable housing units?

Travel Impacts

Per capita automobile travel is often 20-50% lower in location efficient developments than in automobile-dependent, urban fringe locations.  Table 1 summarizes the projected vehicle miles traveled (VMT) reduction impacts of various location-efficient, infill developments.

Table:  Infill VMT Reductions[71]

Location efficient developments and mortgages can provide several benefits:

• Consumers benefit from more housing, transportation choices and financial savings. Non-drivers, in particular, benefit from having housing options designed for maximum accessibility, and financial savings from reduced parking costs.

• Developers can benefit from having more design flexibility, including more opportunities for infill development, reduced parking costs, and because LEMs increase the amount a household can spend on housing.  It creates new markets and financing options.

• Urban neighborhoods can benefit from more opportunities for middle-class infill development, fewer motor vehicles and less vehicle traffic.

• By reducing per capita vehicle ownership use, Location Efficient Development can reduce regional traffic congestion, road and parking facility costs, traffic crashes, pollution and sprawl.

• Regional economies tend to benefit when consumers shift their transportation expenditures from vehicles and fuel to transit services or general consumer goods.

Here are some specific recommendations for implementing Location Efficient Developments and Mortgages[72]:

• A location efficient development should include a variety of land use and transportation features that improve access and mobility options, including pedestrian and cycling improvements, transit improvements, and mixed land use.

• It should also include a range of housing types and prices, so that people in various lifecycle stages and income classes can choose such housing.

• Parking requirements should be reduced or eliminated for location efficient housing.  Rather than including parking with housing, parking should be rented separately, so households only pay for the amount of parking they actually use.

• Parking should be managed to avoid spillover problems.

Provide Incentives for Hybrid and Low Emission Vehicle Use

While the ideal (from a climate perspective) is that citizens have access to alternative transportation options to deter automobile ownership, many citizens, especially those living outside dense urban areas, still need or want to purchase their own automobiles.  Municipalities can create incentives to encourage citizens to purchase vehicles that produce less GHG emissions.  For example, cities such as Salt Lake City, Aspen,Baltimore, Los Angeles, Albuquerque, Hartford and New Haven already have various forms of free or discounted parking for hybrid or high efficiency drivers.[76] [77]

 

 

Incentives for Hybrid and Low Emission Vehicle Use

CASE STUDY:  Ferndale, MI

Since May 2006, drivers of fuel-efficient vehicles in a suburb outside of the Motor City are saving money on more than fuel.  The city of Ferndale recently passed a local ordinance, the first of its kind in Michigan, that enables drivers of cars that get 30-miles-a-gallon or better, to park for free at the city’s parking meters.[78]  In order to pay for the administrative costs of the program, car owners must register their vehicle and pay $8 to get a permit for the free meter parking.  Craig Covey, the Ferndale council member who proposed the ordinance, explained the city’s decision,  “We’re all hurting with the high gas prices and this is a small, symbolic step to send a message: We care about progress.”[79] CONTACT City of Ferndale, Michigan 300 East Nine Mile Road Ferndale, Michigan  48220 (248) 546-2360

 

Additional Resources

• Road Tax Discount for Car-Free Households.  The City of Austin, Texas has an innovative way of financing transportation infrastructure that rewards households that reduce their vehicle ownership.  City utility bills include a “Transportation User Fee” that averages $30 to $40 annually for a typical household.  This charge is based on the average number of daily motor vehicle trips made per property, reflecting its size and use.  The city provides exemptions to residential properties with occupants that do not own or regularly use a private motor vehicle for transportation, or if they are 65 years of age or older. [80]




• Commuter Choice is a nationwide partnership designed to help employers create customized solutions to their employees' commuting challenges.  Commuter Choice can also include communities working with residents, schools working with students, and even developers working with future tenants to provide and promote choices for travelers.
  www.commuterchoice.com/index.php?page=employers




• Ride Arrangers, Denver Regional Council of Governments
  RideArrangers helps businesses and individuals ease traffic congestion and reduce pollution by promoting use of alternative transportation.  Using the latest transportation management ideas to keep traffic moving, RideArrangers maintains air quality and preserves the quality of life that Denver metro area residents know and expect.
  www.drcog.org/index.cfm?page=RideArrangers




• Stormwater Management Fees to reduce parking supply and instigate transportation management programs.  The City of Bellingham charges stormwater fees of $3 a month for smaller buildings with 300 to 1,000 square feet of impervious surfaces and $5 per 3,000 square for larger buildings.  This indicates annualized costs 2 to 5.5 cents per square foot of impervious surface.  (www.vtpi.org/tca/tca0515.pdf )




• Travel Matters Includes an interactive emissions calculator, on-line emissions maps and a learning/resource center.
  www.travelmatters.org